Glossary of Market Research Terms

Baby Boomers are those people who were born between 1946 and 1964.

Back Checking: The survey respondent is contacted after the research has taken place and questioned about the interview in an effort to authenticate the data was collected.

Back Translation is a validation process where a survey is first translated into another language and then translated back into the original language by a different person. The objective is to ensure that the original translation is accurate

A balanced Scale is a scale with an equal number of favorable and unfavorable categories

Banner Format is a style of data tabulation where the responses from each sub-group are listed for each question in the survey

Bar Chart is a type of graph where the data is displayed in the form of bars that can be arranged vertically or horizontally

The base is the required number of interviews to be completed/are completed.

Base Line ( Bench Mark or Pre-wave) is the result of a study conducted to obtain a snapshot or reading of current conditions prior to some change in market conditions or the introduction of some test conditions. The result is then used as a standard for comparison with subsequent studies.

Bayesian Analysis is a mathematical procedure based on decision theory that aims to estimate the value of a market research project

Benefit Segmentation is the dividing of potential consumers into sub-groups according to the benefits sought

Benchmark: Evaluating or checking something in comparison with a standard or past data or comparative/competitive data.

Bias is a general term referring to the inaccuracy in a research study caused by non-sampling errors.

Biased Question is a question that is phrased or expressed in such a way that it influences the respondent’s opinion. Such questions may provide information that leads a respondent to consider the subject in a specific way. Bias may also be introduced through verbal or facial expressions, body language or by paraphrasing the original question.

Biased Sample is a sample that does not contain units in the same proportion as the population of interest.
Bimodal Distribution is a frequency distribution with two modes.

The binomial test is a statistical test of dichotomous data (where there are two possible outcomes) to check whether the research data is significantly different from what would be expected.

Bipolar Adjectives are two opposing adjectives that define the opposite ends of a scale (such as a semantic differential scale).

Bipolar Scale is a type of scale whose extremities are defined by two opposing adjectives.

Bivariate Analysis is the analysis of a relationship between two variables.

Bivariate Regression is a procedure for deriving the equation that relates a single metric dependent variable and a single metric independent variable.

Blind Testing is the testing of products with potential consumers where brand names, packaging, and other identifying items have been removed.

Brainstorming Sessions are a creative method of coming up with new ideas or solutions to a problem by generating a large number of ideas without subjecting them or the person who suggested them to critical evaluation. They can also be referred to as “ideation sessions”.

A brand is a product or service to which human beings attach a bundle of tangible (functional product and service characteristics) and intangible (emotional and/or symbolic) meanings that add value. A brand has one strategic purpose and that it to differentiate itself from competitors.

Brand Awareness is a measure or indication of the readiness with which a brand springs to mind.

Brand Equity is a term developed to describe the financial value of a brand to the bottom line profit of a business.

Brand Essence is the set of core values that define a brand. These values remain constant over time even though the execution characteristics of packaging, advertising (and other marketing variables) may change.

Brand Image is the total impression created in the mind of a potential consumer by a brand and all its functional and emotional associations. The total image can be seen as the sum of several images such as the product, user, occasion, service, and personality images.

Branding has two meanings:
(1) The process, which may take decades, by which a brand comes to have added values and involves
long-term support by communications either above or below the line.
(2) The associative strength between an advertisement (usually) and a brand expressed as a positive or negative relationship, ie “well-branded” or “poorly branded”.

Brand Loyalty is a general term used to describe the extent to which consumers buy or use a brand in preference to other brands. In practice consumers often buy or use several brands, therefore brand loyalty is a relative measure.

Brand Personality is an expression of the fundamental core values and characteristics of a brand, described and experienced as human personality traits, eg friendly, intelligent, innovative etc. It is an expression of the relationship between the consumer and the brand.

Brand Positioning is the location of a brand in relation to its competitors in some pre-defined space. The space may be defined by criteria used by consumers, such as “value for money” or “age of consumer” etc

Brand Proposition is a sentence or phrase that encapsulates the brand benefits, eg a brand with technical superiority or a brand that guarantees next-day delivery. Often a brand benefit is translated into an end-line that becomes part of the brand communication on advertising, packaging, or promotions, eg “the world’s favorite airline”.

Brand Share is the percentage of sales of a specific product category that are accounted for by one brand. Brand shares can be expressed in terms of the sales value or the volume of units sold.

Booster refers to additional interviews involving a particular sub-group of a sample to ensure there are sufficient members of the sub-group in the resulting sample.

A Brief is be a statement (usually in writing) of a business problem that could be alleviated by conducting some marketing research. Briefs are normally written by a client company for a research supplier and they usually have a background and an objectives section. A suggested methodology section can also be included.

A Briefing is a training session prior to starting work on a study in which all specifications and
details of the study are reviewed. This is generally followed by practice (or pilot) interviews where they are being used.

Buying Rate (Volume per buyer) is the average volume purchased per buyer over the period of an analysis

Call-back (Recall Interview) is a repeat telephone call to a potential respondent to see if they can participate in a survey.

Call Disposition is a tabulation of the outcome of calls made during a computer-aided telephone interview (CATI) survey.

CAGR – Compound Annual Growth Rate is the average annual percentage growth rate for a series of n observations. The formula for determining the CAGR % is as follows: ((last value/first value)^(n-1))-1

Cannibalisation is the degree to which increased sales of one brand replace sales of another brand or brands from the same manufacturer.

Canonical Analysis is an extension of multiple regression analysis that deals with two dependent variable

CATI surveys: (Computer Assisted Telephone Interview) is a software program where the responses in a personal interview are keyed directly into a computer or tablet or mobile device. The administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed program. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided

The case is a complete record of an interview with a respondent or a data entry record

The categorical Scale is a scale that asks respondents to choose from a limited number of alternatives. There are three main types of categorical scale; semantic differential, Stapel, and Likert.

A categorical variable is a variable that is based on non-metric data (ie data that cannot be analyzed statistically such as that from a nominal or ordinal scale)

CATI is computer-aided telephone interviewing where the responses are keyed directly into a computer and administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed program. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided

A causal relationship is where one can infer that two variables are related in some way. Three conditions have to be met before a causal relationship can be inferred; there has to be evidence of association (concomitant variation), the dependent variable has to change after the independent variable has changed (temporal ordering) and all other possible causes have to be eliminated.

Causal Research: Research that examines the cause-and-effect relationship among variables (a causes b) and is a type of conclusive research

Causation: the action of causing something.

CAWI is computer-aided web interviewing, where respondents complete a website (or HTML) survey and some computer software, presenting each question only after the previous question has been completed. Subsequent questions can be tailored to previous the question answers, enabling sophisticated routing plans to be used in these surveys

Census is the collection of data from all available units in a population of interest.

Centralized Research Function is where the marketing researchers in an organization are located together in one department

Central Limit Theorem is a theorem that states that the sampling distribution curve (for sample sizes of 30 and over) will be centered on the population parameter value and it will have all the properties of a normal distribution.

Central Location Interviewing is when face-to-face interviews are conducted at one or more specified locations (eg hall, mall intercept interviewing, etc. ).

Centroid is the average value of a group of objects in a cluster.

Chief Income Earner is the person in the household with the largest income, whether from employment, pensions, state benefits, investments, or any other source.

Chief Shopper is a member of a household who is responsible for the majority of household purchasing decisions.

Chi-Square Distribution is a skewed distribution whose shape depends on the number of degrees of freedom. As the number of degrees of freedom increases, the distribution becomes more symmetrical

Chi-square Test is a non-parametric statistical test that compares research data with the expected results from a hypothesis.

Claimed Recall is a measure used in advertising surveys that refers to the proportion of respondents who say they saw or heard an advertisement or a particular form of advertising.

Classification Information involves socio-economic and/or demographic information on participants in a market research study.

Classification Questions are questions that aim to collect classification information and they are usually put at the end of a questionnaire

Clients are the ultimate consumers of marketing research, they create the demand for research services and pay for the research that is conducted. Clients can be internal or external. Internal clients are other users of research in the same organization. External clients are based in other organizations

Closed-ended Questions provide respondents with a pre-determined list of possible answers.

Coding: Data is categorized under specific attributes in order to be analyzed in a quantitative manner.

Cohort: A group of people exhibiting common traits or behavior or statistical characteristic.

Competitive Intelligence: Gathering, analyzing, and managing data and information of the competition and business environment in which a company operates.

Convenience Sample: A research sampling method where the most accessible people meeting the criteria are recruited for the survey and responses taken from them.

Coolhunting: Marketing professionals make observations or predictions about changes in cultural trends.

Copy testing (or pre-testing): The study of evaluating the performance of marketing material (especially advertisement) prior to the formal release in order to gauge the response and address any issues/edit/modify the advertisement.

Consumer Behavior: Research that understands the consumers – who are the current and potential customers, what do customers do with the product, where consumers purchase from, why and how do consumers purchase the products, why customers do not purchase the products or brands.

Cluster Analysis is an analytical technique that arranges research data into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups (or clusters) where the contents of each cluster are similar to each other but different from the other clusters in the analysis.

Cluster Sampling is a type of probability sampling where a population of interest is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sub-groups (or clusters) and a sample of clusters is selected. From the selected clusters, a sample of units is drawn.

Code of Conduct (or Ethics) all professional marketing research societies have a code of conduct that details the rights and responsibilities of those involved with marketing and opinion research.

Coding is the organizing of responses into categories and the assignment of a unique numerical code to each response prior to data entry.

Coefficient of Determination (R Squared) is the exact percentage of variation shared by two variables, obtained by squaring the product-moment correlation coefficient

Coefficient of Variation is a measure of variability (or dispersion) of distribution and it is equal to the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.

Cohort Analysis is a type of multiple cross-sectional design where the population of interest is a cohort whose members have all experienced the same event in the same time period (e.g. birth). The samples are usually drawn at regular time intervals

Communality in factor analysis is the amount of variance a variable shares with all the other variables being considered. It is also the proportion of variance explained by the common factors.

Comparability is the extent to which research results can be meaningfully compared.

Comparative Scales are a type of scale where one object is compared with another and a relative measure of preference is obtained, eg do respondents prefer one or another soft drink? The main types of comparative scales are – paired comparison, rank order, constant sum and Q sort

Completes Per Hour (CPH) is the number of interviews completed per hour of interviewing. Factors influencing CPH are: accuracy of sample, study incidence, interview length, screener length and co-operation rate.

Completion Rate is the proportion of qualified respondents who complete the interview.

The completion technique is a form of projective technique where participants are asked to complete an incomplete situation.

Complex Questions are questions containing words that are unfamiliar to respondents.

Composite Variable Index is an index that combines a number of separate variables, e.g. education, income, and occupation are used to form one overall measure of social class.

A compositional approach is an approach to attitude measurement where the overall preference for an object is obtained by summing the evaluative rating of each attribute multiplied by the importance of that attribute.

A concept is a description of a proposed product or service consisting of attributes and benefits.

Concept Board is a board with a written description of a product idea or positioning, often accompanied by an illustration that is shown to respondents.

A concept statement is a brief written description of a new product or service idea.

Concept Testing is the investigation of potential consumers’ reactions to a proposed product or service.
Conclusions are a summary of the research findings.

Conclusive Research involves the use of highly structured techniques (such as questionnaires with closed questions) with statistically representative samples in order to prove or disprove hypotheses.

Concomitant Variation is when two variables occur or vary together. It is one of the conditions that have to be met in order to infer a causal relationship.

Concurrent Validity is the degree to which two different measuring systems produce correlating results. It is often used to determine the validity of new measuring techniques, by comparing them with established techniques.

Conditional Probability is the probability of a research outcome occurring if a state or condition was to exist.

Confidence Interval is a range of values-centered on the sample estimate that is known to contain the true value with a given degree of confidence (usually 95%).

Confidence Level (Confidence Coefficient) is a percentage (usually 95%) that reflects the degree of certainty that the true value lies within the confidence interval. It is the minimum probability of not rejecting a true null hypothesis (committing a Type I error) and is equal to one minus the significance level.

Confidence Limits are the two values from each end of a confidence interval.

Confidentiality refers to the act of not divulging two types of information in a research study. First, confidentiality is maintained when study information such as client name, brand name, purpose of the research, concepts, and/or products (except as directed by the study instructions) is only provided to those who have a need to know. Confidentiality also refers to maintaining the privacy of information collected from or about any individual respondent.

Conjoint Analysis (Trade Off Analysis) is a research technique that aims to describe how consumers make complex decisions by assuming the decisions are based on a number of factors considered jointly (hence the name) and they trade off some factors for others. The technique requires participants to choose a limited number of attributes from a selection, thereby providing an indication of the importance attached to particular attributes.

Consideration Set is the set of alternatives that potential consumers would consider when buying a product or service.

Consistency Check involves identifying completed questionnaires with data that are out of the permissible range, logically inconsistent, or have extreme values. Data that is out of the range of the coding scheme is inadmissible.

Constant Sum Scaling is a type of comparative scale where respondents are asked to allocate a fixed amount (or constant sum) of points, dollars, or anything among a set of objects according to a criterion.

Construct is a set of attitudes or values used by consumers.

The consumer is the ultimate user of a product or service.

Consumer Confusion Study is a study that aims to measure the tendency of consumers to confuse the company that makes a particular brand with another company or to confuses one brand with another.

Consumer Panel is a group of selected research participants who have agreed to provide pre-designated information at regular specified intervals over an extended period of time. The information may be on purchasing, media consumption, or lifestyle activities.

Consumer Satisfaction Surveys are studies that aim to determine consumers’ opinions of the quality of goods and services offered by a business. They can include qualitative and quantitative research techniques.

Consumer Survey is an investigation of the behavior, preferences, attitudes, or opinions of a target group sample, collected through a questionnaire.

Contact is an interviewer’s interaction with a potential respondent to determine eligibility for participation in a marketing research study.

Content Analysis is an analysis technique where written material is broken down into meaningful units using carefully designed rules.

Contingency is the difference between an actual frequency and an expected frequency in a table.

Contingency Table (Association Matrix) is a cross-tabulation table that contains a cell for every combination of categories of the two variables.

Continuous Data is from a measurement scale where it is permissible to calculate intermediate values.

A continuous panel is a consumer panel that involves participation from the same respondents repeatedly over time. This contrasts with an ad hoc panel, where a pre-recruited group of willing respondents is used as and when they are required.

Continuous Rating Scale is a type of non-comparative scale that offers respondents a form of continuum
(such as a line) on which to provide a rating of an object according to a criterion.

Continuous Research is any research that involves the regular, ongoing collection of data, e.g. consumer panels and epos data.

Control Cell is a group of respondents that receives the normal (or no) treatment and provides a basis of comparison to the test or experimental group that receives the test or experimental treatment.

Controlled Store Test is a type of research experiment where one group of stores receives a certain treatment (test stores) and another group receives no treatment (control stores). Sales are then measured for each group over an extended period of time to measure the effect of the treatment.

A convenience sample is a type of non-probability sample where the units have been selected because they are convenient for the researcher (which may not be the optimum sample for the research project).
Convergent Validity is the ability of a measurement scale to correlate (or converge) with other measures of the same variable.

A cookie file is a computer file that is secretly added to the hard disk of someone who visits a web site that sends them. Their purpose is to track website visitors.

Co-operation Rate is the proportion of eligible respondents who, having been contacted, agree to participate in a research study. The cooperation rate is impacted by the length of the interview, the subject matter, and the type of person being interviewed.

Copy Point Recall is an advertising research measure of a respondent’s ability to remember a particular message, slogan or theme etc from a commercial.

Copy Testing is a method of determining the degree of understanding, impact, awareness, and believability that an ad may generate. Respondents are shown the ad, then they are questioned about their opinions.

Correlation is the existence of a relationship between two variables (which may or may not be a causal relationship – correlation on its own does not infer causality).

Correspondence Analysis is a perceptual mapping technique that is based on data where respondents are asked to identify/associate the attributes that relate to (or correspond with) the subject of the study/brands/products.

Cost per Interview is determined by dividing the total budget for a project by the number of completed/successful interviews as per pre-defined criteria

Creative Development Research is a type of qualitative research that is used to formulate advertising. It can work at three stages in the advertising development process (i) Defining the strategy – i.e. what should the advertising be saying? (ii) Defining the execution i.e. how should it be said? (iii) Testing a chosen execution

A cross-cultural analysis is the collection and analysis of data from different countries (or cultural units) that compares the findings from different countries.

A cross-sectional design is a research design that involves the collection of data from a sample only once.

Cross-tabulation is a table that shows the frequency and/or percentage of respondents who gave various answers to a question in a survey, and which simultaneously shows these answers for various sub-groups of respondents.

Cross-validation is a test of validity for a regression model that involves using comparable data to check the validity of an original estimation.

Culture is the total sum of learned beliefs, values, and customs that serve to regulate the consumer behavior of members of a particular society.

Data are research facts that are based on respondents’ answers to questions. It may be any information collected for research purposes.

A database is a centrally held collection of data that allows access and manipulation by one or more users.

Data Collection: Gathering the responses for a survey either in person (offline), online, telephonically or by other survey methods based upon a research instrument – questionnaire for quantitative survey or discussion guide for qualitaive survey or a framework for conducting a mystery audit, observations, etc.

Data Collection Company is an enterprise or agency that supplies trained interviewers for clients and receives payment for services delivered. The service is responsible for hiring and training interviewers, executing a client’s job exactly as specified, editing and validating each interviewer’s completed assignment.

Data Collection Instrument is any device that is used to gather information from respondents, eg. questionnaires (pen & paper, CAPI, web link, CATI, etc.), video recorders, tape recorders, online recordings, etc.

Data entry: The process of entering data from surveys, research, etc., into an electronic format that can be used for further analysis.

Data Mining: The process of examining large databases to extract patterns from the data and draw inferences.

Data Reduction Plan is a set of instructions for editing and coding the questionnaire and specifies how the
data should be evaluated for inconsistencies, skipped questions, etc, and then verified.

Data Warehouse: Large database systems storing a wide range of information from within a company.

Day After Recall is a standard measure of the impact of a TV commercial where respondents’ recollection of a commercial is tested the day after they are exposed to it.

Debranding is the removal of brand names, packaging, or other material that would enable research participants to identify a brand.

Debrief is the presentation of research finding to clients

Decentralized Research Function is where the marketing researchers are spread throughout an organization and are not located together.

DECIDE Model: A model of the decision-making process; Define the marketing problem, enumerate the controllable and uncontrollable decision factors, collect relevant information, identify the best alternative, develop and implement a marketing plan, and evaluate the decision.

Degrees of Freedom refers to the number of ways in which values could be assigned within a system. For example, a table of observations with p rows and q columns has (p-1)(q-1) degrees of freedom. (In a sample of size n grouped into k intervals, there are always (k-1) degrees of freedom, because if (k-1) frequencies are specified, the other is determined by the total size n.)

Delphi Approach is an approach to forecasting where a group of people produce separate forecasts and then each member is given information about the other forecasts and asked to revise their original estimate. The
objective of the approach is to converge forecast estimates.

Demand Artefacts are the responses given when respondents attempt to guess the purpose of the questions being asked. Demand artefacts can be the result of experimental conditions.

Demographic Information is based on the age, gender, life-cycle stage, income, and occupation of consumers.

Dendogram is a diagram that shows a hierarchy and the relation of subsets in a structure. It branches like a tree and is usually read downwards from the main trunk.

Dependence Techniques are types of multivariate analysis techniques that are used when one or more of the variables can be identified as dependent variables and the remaining variables can be identified as independent.

Dependency is when one variable is influenced to an extent by another variable.

Dependent Variable usually denoted as ‘y’, is a variable that is influenced to some extent by one or more other
(independent) variables. For example, if sales and price were your two variables, sales could be the dependent variable because it is impacted by the price (or vice versa).

Descriptive Research is a form of conclusive research that aims to describe a product or market or identify associations among variables.

Desk Research is the systematic examination of all available secondary data in the context of a particular marketing research problem.

The deviation is the difference between the mean and an observed value.

Diad is an in-depth interview involving an interviewer and a participant (ie two people only). It is also referred to as a “one-on-one”.

Diary is a log where facts are recorded relating to a respondent’s experiences with a subject or product. Diaries can also be a record of regular purchases or viewing habits and they are often given to respondents when they receive a product to use at home.

Diary Panel is a type of consumer panel where participants record activities or events in a diary.

Dichotomous Question: Closed-ended question posed that only has two response alternatives, such as yes or no.

Direct Observation is when behavior or events are observed while something is happening.

Direct Paired Comparison is a question that directs the respondent to make a comparison between two objects, eg “which of these two products do you prefer?”

A direct Question is a question to research participants about their own behavior (as opposed to an indirect question that asks them about the behaviour of other people).

Direct Questioning Techniques are ways of asking people directly for information, such as personal or telephone interviews and mail surveys.

Discrete Data is that from a measurement scale consisting of a number of separate values where intermediate values are not permissible, eg the number of cars per household.

Discriminant Analysis is an analysis technique where the dependent variable is non-metric (i.e. nominal or ordinal in nature) and the independent variables are metric (i.e. interval or ratio in nature).

Discussion Guide is an outline of the subjects to be discussed during group discussions and/or in-depth interviews.

Disguised Observation is the observation of behavior without participants’ knowledge.

Disguised Questioning is any form of questioning where respondents are unaware of the true purpose of the questions.

Disproportionate Stratified Sample is a type of probability sample where the probability of a unit being selected from a stratum is not proportional to the number of units in the strata. This sampling approach is used when there are strata in the population of interest that is quite small but very important and they may not be adequately represented in a survey if other sampling approaches are used.

Disqualifier is an answer to a question that makes the respondent ineligible to participate in the research project.

Distribution is a frequency or percentage table showing how a set of respondents is divided into various categories, eg percent who bought 1-5 times, 6-10 times, 11+ times.

Distribution Check is a check and recording of the availability of specific items in stores.

Don’t Know (DK) is the abbreviation recorded when a respondent lacks the knowledge to provide an answer to a question.

Door-to-Door Survey is a survey where the interviews are conducted in pre-selected areas involving knocking on the doors of homes to find qualified respondents.

Double-barrelled questions are those that ask two questions at the same time. They can confuse respondents and answers to such questions are uninterpretable, because it is not possible to determine to which question the answer refers.

Double-Blind Test is a product test where both the researcher administering the test and the participants are unaware of the complete identity of the products being tested.

Dual Moderator Group is a group discussion with two moderators, each moderator having a different role, eg one to ensure the smooth running of the group and the other to discuss or explain key issues.

Dummy Variables are a way of respecifying categorical variables in data analysis by giving them either of two values (eg 0 or 1).

Econometrics is the analysis of economic systems containing supply and demand data using statistical models.

Editing (Data Cleaning) involves examining each completed questionnaire to ensure that the proper sequence of questions has been asked, the answers are clear and consistent and they have been correctly marked.

Eligibility Criteria are specified characteristics that potential participants must possess in order to be involved in a particular research project.

An eligible respondent is a person who meets certain criteria set for a particular study and thus qualifies to be included in the study.

Respondents may be qualified on characteristics such as age, income, the brand used, etc.

Empty Nesters are those people whose children have left or are about to leave the family home.

End Piling is a phenomenon where many survey responses fall into just a few categories at the end of a measurement scale.

ESOMAR is the world association of research professionals. Founded in 1948 as the European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research – ESOMAR unites members across countries, both users and providers of opinion and marketing research. ESOMAR’s mission is to promote the use of opinion and market research for improving decision-making in business and society worldwide.

Executive Interviews (Business-to-Business Interviews) are interviews with business people or experts within a particular field. Executive interviews are often used where the majority of knowledge of a subject is held by a minority of people.

Executive Summary is a document that summarises all the sections of a market research report.
Exhibits/Exhibit Cards see show cards.

The expected value in a cross-tabulation is the number of objects one would expect to find after multiplying the probabilities of the row and the column in the table (which may be different from the observed value).

Experience Survey is a survey involving participants who have knowledge of a particular situation.

An experiment is a process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables, while controlling for external variables.

Experimental Design is a set of experimental procedures specifying: the test units, sampling procedures, independent variables, dependent variables and how external variables are to be controlled.

Experimental Error is the error caused by the conditions of the experiment itself and it creates uncertainty that the observed effects may not be due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Experimental Treatments are the different conditions created by manipulating the independent variable.

Experimental Units are the objects or people who are part of the experiment.

An expert opinion survey is a form of exploratory research that involves discussing a research problem with someone (or a group of people) with experience on a particular subject.

Exponential Smoothing is a statistical technique that calculates a moving average where the most recent data are given different weights to earlier data.

Exploratory Research refers to the initial investigation of a problem that uses unstructured techniques (such as group discussions or in-depth interviews) in order to develop hypotheses and/or understand a problem further.

Extended Group Discussion is a group discussion that has been designed to last around 3-4 hours (compared with the usual time of around an hour and a half).

External Secondary Data are existing data that have already been collected by other organizations.

External Validity is the extent to which experimental results can be projected to a population of interest.

External Variables are factors that are not manipulated as part of an experiment, but they may exert some influence on the dependent variable under study.

Eye-tracking: Tracking the pattern of eye movements to determine what part of advertisement consumers look at and for what length.

Eye Tracking Research involves the use of various mechanical devices to record participants’ eye movements when they are looking at some form of stimulus (such as a press advert in a newspaper).

Fact is a statement that is objectively true and can be verified.

The factor is an underlying construct defined by a linear combination of variables.

Factor Analysis is a form of multivariate analysis that takes a large number of variables or objects and aims to identify a small number of factors that explain the interrelations among the variables or objects.

Factorial Design is a type of statistical experimental design where units are assigned to groups that represent all possible combinations of the independent variables of interest.

Factor Loading is the correlation (or regression weight) of a variable with a factor.

The Field is the physical location where the interviewing takes place.

A field experiment is one that is conducted in a natural setting (where the external validity is usually higher than the internal validity).

Field Force refers to the interviewers and supervisors who are involved in data collection.

The field supervisor is the person who is responsible for selecting, hiring, and training interviewers. He or she is also responsible for the data collection phase of the survey and following the agreed instructions.

Fieldwork is a general term that refers to any data-gathering process.

A filter question is a question in a questionnaire to ensure that respondents meet the required criteria for a subsequent question (or questions) in a survey.

Findings are information that answers a research question.

A fixed field code is a code in which the number of records for each respondent is the same and the same data appear in all the same columns for all respondents.

A fixed sample is the repeated observation of the same sample of respondents over a period of time.

Focus Group: A type of qualitative research where a group of people has a discussion on their perceptions, opinions, etc., toward a product or service. It consists of an informal discussion of a particular topic with a small number of selected participants (usually 8-12). The discussion is guided by a skilled moderator who does not influence the outcome but ensures that all the subject areas are discussed by the group and the views of the participants are as clear as possible. The ideal number of participants depends on the subject matter being discussed, eg complex subjects may be better discussed with fewer participants – possibly 4-6.

A folder test is a qualitative press advertising test where the advertising is placed in a folder with competitive advertising (and editorial extracts) and respondents are asked to page through it.

Forced Exposure is when research participants are exposed to some advertising in a contrived way (such as in a hall test or a focus group) as opposed to an on-air test where participants see the advertising in a natural setting (such as in their own homes).

The forced Rating Scale is a scale that does not allow a neutral or no opinion choice.

Frequency is the average number of times an advert has been exposed to a specified television
audience or universe.

Frequency Distribution is a representation of the number of counts of objects or responses, usually in the form of a table or graph

A friendship Pair Interview (Paired Depth or Triad) is a type of depth interview where there are two respondents (instead of the usual one). Friendship pair interviewing is often used for research with children and young people (where they know each other) in order to avoid respondents being intimidated and biasing their responses accordingly.

Front-of-mind Awareness (Top-of-mind Awareness) is a measure of how readily a brand name or concept comes to respondents’ minds. It is the first answer to questions such as unaided brand awareness.

Frugging is fundraising under the guise of research and it is one of the reasons why potential participants in market research projects are reluctant to take part.

F Test is a statistical test of the equality of the variances of two populations.

Full-Service Agency/Supplier is a company that is hired to design, manage and implement a research project, as well as analyze and interpret the data. The company may collect the data themselves or hire a data collection company for this phase of a project.

Funnel Approach is a way of ordering questions in a questionnaire so that general questions are asked before specific questions. This ordering avoids the responses to specific questions biasing the answers to general questions.

Geodemographics: A combination of geographic and demographic information.

Geodemographic Information is based on a combination of demographics (age, gender, life-cycle stage, and occupation) with the geographical area.

Generalizability is the extent to which inferences can be drawn about the population of interest based on the results of some research.

Goodness of Fit Test is a statistical test of non-parametric data to determine whether the results from research are consistent with the expected results from a particular hypothesis

Group Effect is a type bias that occurs in face-to-face group discussions where some participants moderate their opinions in order to go along with a majority view of the rest of the group. The result of a group effect is that a consensus may not be representative of all the opinions present in the group.

Hall Test is where research participants are invited to a central location to participate in some (usually quantitative) market research.

Halo Effect is a form of response bias where a respondent carries an overall generalized positive or negative impression from one specific character to the next, e.g. if a respondent considers a product to be excellent, then he or she is likely to rate the product highly on taste, appearance, and texture, etc.

Hand Tab is the simplest type of tabulation possible, consisting of a manual count of the answers to certain questions on the questionnaire.

Head of Household is that member of the household who is responsible for the household having that accommodation, either by owning, renting, or having it rent-free. Where two or more people share this responsibility, the researcher should specify who to include in the study.

Hedonic Scale is a scale that indicates the extent of respondents’ overall liking or disliking for something, eg a product they tasted or a concept they viewed.

Heterogeneous Groups: A group of people who have diverse attributes.

Hidden Issue Questioning is a technique used during depth interviews that aims to identify significant personal views that would otherwise not be revealed by respondents using a direct approach.

Hierarchy-of-effects Model is a marketing behavioural response model consisting of stages through which a buyer is presumed to go, including – awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, intention to buy, and purchase.

Histogram is a vertical bar chart where the height of the bars represents the data.

History Error occurs in experiments when an unexpected (but significant) effect occurs that has an impact on the dependent variable being measured.

Holistic Test is a test that aims to assess participants’ reaction to a product or concept as a whole (in contrast to an atomistic test that examines reactions to the individual elements).

Home Audit (Pantry Check) is a survey where an interviewer enters a participant’s home to take an inventory of specific products present at that time.

Home Use Test (Extended Use Test or Product Placement Test) involves participants evaluating products in their own homes, or more generally, in a natural usage environment. The purpose of the test is to make an evaluation of a product after more experience with it than just some initial use.

Independent Variable: Variation is independent of changes in the values of other variables and is the causative factor. For example, if sales and price were your two variables, price could be the independent variable because it causes sales to increase or decrease (or vice versa).

Identification information lists details such as the name and address of participants in a market research project whereby they can be identified.

Implicit Alternatives are alternatives in a question that are not expressed openly. Such alternatives may have lower chance of being selected and therefore the data may be biased.

Implicit Assumption is when all respondents are assumed to have the same level of knowledge on a subject. Questions with implicit assumptions can lead to instrument error and/or respondent error.

Implied Population is the population as suggested by the sample, ie it is that part of the population of interest that was available for the research. When a convenience sample is used or where there is sampling frame error, the implied population could be significantly different to the population of interest (or the ideal population).

Imputed Response is a substitute for a missing response that is based on the pattern of other responses from a survey respondent.

Inability Error is where respondents are unable to answer a particular question. This may be because they have not understood the question, they do not have the information the question requires, they cannot remember the circumstances to which the question refers or they are unable to articulate certain types of responses.

Incentive (Co-operation Fee or Respondent Fee) is a reward given to participants or businesses for taking the time and trouble to co-operate in a marketing research study.

Incidence (Strike Rate) is the proportion of respondents contacted in a survey who qualify for the survey.

In-depth Interview (One-on-One or Diad) is a type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

Index is a variable that is determined by dividing one measurement by another, and it is usually expressed as a percentage. Indices can be used to show variations over time, by comparing subsequent measurements of a variable with an initial measurement (an index of 100 indicates no change). Indices can also show the relative incidence of a particular characteristic in two samples, by dividing the percentage of one sample by the other, indices of 120 and over or 80 and below generally indicate above-average and below-average skews respectively.

Indirect Approach is one where the true purpose of a research project is disguised. Indirect approaches are used when revealing the true purpose of the research would bias the responses given by participants.

Indirect Observation (Trace Analysis) is an observation technique where some record of past behaviour is used to deduce what happened during an event, eg looking at packaging usage in a fast food restaurant to understand what flavoured drinks sell the most.

Indirect Question is a question to research participants that asks them to consider the behaviour of other people instead of their own. The purpose of indirect questions is to avoid bias caused by social group norms and the best light phenomenon.

Independent Samples are samples that are not linked experimentally and the measurement of one sample has no effect on the others.

Independent variable (Causal Variable) is a variable that exerts some influence on another (dependent) variable. Research experiments usually involve some manipulation of independent variables and measurement of dependent variables to investigate the relationship between them.

Industrial Survey is a marketing research study that focuses on products and services utilised by businesses and manufacturing firms, conducted among respondents employed in such businesses (as opposed to a consumer survey).

Initial Refusal occurs when a respondent refuses to participate in a survey at the interviewer’s initial introductory statement.

Inferential Analysis is the analysis of data to test a specific hypothesis.

Information involves the analysis and interpretation of data to describe something about a market.

Informed Consent is the principle that researchers should try to avoid both uninformed and misinformed participation by subjects in research.

In-home Interview is where participants are asked survey questions face-to-face in their own homes.

In-house Research is research that is conducted by the staff in a client company (rather than by an agency).

In-street Interview is where participants are asked survey questions face-to-face in the street.

Instrument Error is a type of non-sampling error caused by the survey instrument (or questionnaire) itself, such as unclear wording, asking respondents for information they are unable to supply or the instrument being changed in some way during the course of the research.

Intended Sample is the ideal sample for a particular research project (which may be different to the resulting sample).

Interaction Effect is the effect of all the factors working together, which is greater than the sum of the separate effects.

Intercept Interview (Mall Intercept Interview) is a type of central location interviewing where respondents are approached (or intercepted) at random in high traffic locations such as grocery stores or shopping malls. The main part of the interview can take place either on the mall floor or in another location (usually nearby).

Interdependence Techniques are types of multivariate analysis techniques that are used where no distinction is made as to which variables are dependent or independent.

Interdependency is when variables each influence each other to some degree.

Interlocking Quotas are the numbers of interviews required with participants having several pre-defined characteristics such as age, life-cycle stage and income level.

Interquartile Range is a measure of variability and it is the range between the upper and lower quartiles (i.e. the middle 50% of a distribution) and it is equal to the difference between the 75th and the 25th percentile.

Internal Secondary Data are data that have already been generated and/or collected by a business during its normal course of activity.

Internal Validity is a measure of the accuracy of an experiment in terms of the degree to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable.

International Code of Marketing and Social Research Practice is the code of conduct of ESOMAR and sets out the rights and responsibilities of those involved in marketing and social research.

Interval Scale is a scale where equal intervals in the scale correspond to equal changes in the characteristic being measured, eg temperature scales (Celsius/Fahrenheit). Differences between objects can be analysed statistically (which is not possible with nominal or ordinal scales).

Interview is the exchange if information between an interviewer and a respondent. A questionnaire is the vehicle used for this exchange, and the interviewer records the responses to a question or a series of questions on paper or by using a computer programme. The exchange can be face-to-face, on the telephone or via a computer link of some form.

Interviewer Cheating is when interviewers knowingly do not follow their instructions.

Interviewer Error (Interviewer Bias) is a type of non-sampling error caused by mistakes made by the interviewer. These may include influencing the respondent in some way, asking questions in the wrong order, or using slightly different phrasing (or tone of voice) than other interviewers. It can include intentional errors such as cheating and fraudulent data entry.

Intra-cultural Analysis is the breakdown of data into individual countries (or cultural units) and analysis within each individual country.

Itemised Rating Scale is a type of non-comparative scale where each choice category has some form of description (as opposed to a semantic differential scale, where only the extreme categories are labelled).

Inverted Funnel Approach is a way of ordering questions in a questionnaire where the specific questions are asked before the general questions. The approach can be useful where respondents do not have strong feelings or a general view on a subject.

Laboratory Experiment is one that is conducted in an artificial setting (where the internal validity is usually higher than the external validity).

Laboratory Test Market is a simulated market-place situation for new products where consumers are exposed to advertising and visit an experimental store where they may buy products under controlled conditions. Through follow-up interviews, focus groups and purchase patterns, the market shares for new products can be predicted.

Laddering is a technique for conducting depth interviews where questions progress from product characteristics to user characteristics.

Latin Square Design is a type of statistical experimental design where the aim is to remove the error associated with variations in two non-interacting external variables in order to understand the effect of each variable in addition to the effect of manipulating an independent variable. Experimental units are allocated in such a way that variations in experimental treatments occur once in each row or column (in a table of treatments).

Leading Question (Loaded Question) is one that suggests an answer by the way in which the question is worded.

Length of Interview is the time it takes to ask the questions and record the answers in a survey. This time should include any time required to taste products or review concepts etc. Screening time should be shown separately so that accurate completion rates can be calculated.

Lifestyle is a term that originally referred to the attitudes, interests and opinions of research participants, but it can be used to refer to differences in behaviour that relate to social values.

Likert Scale is a type of categorical, non-comparative scale that determines respondents’ levels of agreement to a series of statements relating to an attitude being measured. It is a type of rating scale used to measure attitudes where respondents identify their level of agreement or disagreement for a statement (for example: strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree).

Linear Regression Analysis is a type of regression analysis between variables that are believed to have a linear relationship.

Line Chart is a chart where a series of data points are connected by a continuous line.

Literature Search is a review of all available secondary data sources on a particular subject.

Loaded Question: A type of question that has a false or questionable presupposition.

Location Studies are research projects that aim to identify the best position (usually for a retail outlet).

Longitudinal Design is a type of research design where a fixed sample of population units is measured repeatedly. Research in which data is collected regularly – daily, weekly, bi-weekly, etc. over a long period of time. Hence, the data for exact same variable will be available for a longer duration.

Mail Panel is a type of consumer panel where participants have agreed to complete a limited number of mail surveys each year. The household classification data of the participants is known in advance, which allows a client to select a sample of respondents with whom to conduct a survey. Mail panels can be local or national in scope.

Mail Survey is one where respondents are asked to complete a questionnaire (unaided) and return it to the sender either by post or email. The respondents may or may not be recruited in advance of the survey.

Mann-Whitney U Test is a test that compares the location of two populations, based on samples from each population. The variables used are measured on an ordinal scale.

Market is the geographical area or areas in which a research project takes place, eg part or all of a country, or part or all of a city.

Marketing Decision Support System is a type of marketing information system where decision makers can make particular requests for information that may not be part of the existing on-going reports.

Marketing Information System is a set of formal procedures for collecting and analysing data from all sources and disseminating information regularly to marketing decision makers.

Marketing intelligence: Qualified observations of events and developments in the marketing environment.

Market Research (ESOMAR definition): Research which includes all forms of market, opinion and social research and data analytics, is the systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals and organisations. It uses the statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied social, behavioural and data sciences to generate insights and support decision-making by providers of goods and services, governments, non-profit organisations and the general public.

Marketing Research (as defined by the American Marketing Association) is the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis and dissemination of information for the purpose. of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing.

Market Segmentation: A process of seggregating customers into groups that share common needs or traits or behaviour, etc. The segments can be the framework to develop differentiated communication / marketing activities as the themes are expected connect with these segments more appropriately.

Market Share: The percentage of a market’s total sales that is earned by a particular company.

Market Structure: The characteristics that are found in a given market – Number of buyers and sellers, the levels of competition, etc. Perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly are generally the four types of market structures.

Matching is the organising of experimental units into test and control groups so that they share some particular characteristics that are relevant to the research.

Maturation Error occurs in experiments when there is a gradual change in the dependent variable over time that is not caused by the independent variable, e.g. participants’ knowledge levels increasing over the period of an experiment.

Mean (arithmetic mean) is a summary measure of central tendency that is equal to the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values in the data.

Measures of Central Tendency are those that describe the centre of a distribution. Examples of measures of central tendency are: mean, median and mode.

Measures of Location are statistics that describe the location within a data set. Examples of measures of location are the 25 th percentile or the largest value. The mean, median and mode are also examples of measures of location (in addition to being measures of central tendency).

Measures of Shape are skewness and kurtosis that describe the outline of a distribution.

Measures of Variability (or dispersion) are those that indicate the spread of a distribution. Examples of measures of variability are: range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation.

Measurement Scale is a device that assigns numbers to objects, events or people according to a set of rules.

Measurement Timing Error occurs in experiments when there are changes in the dependent variable that are caused by taking measurements at different times.

Mechanical Observation is when some form of mechanical device records the behaviour of interest, e.g. a people-meter recording who watches what TV programmes.

Median is a measure of central tendency that identifies the middle-point value (or 50 th percentile) in a set of values when they are arranged in order of magnitude.

MEG (Moderated E-mail Group) is where a group of pre-recruited research participants are all in e-mail contact with a facilitator and the facilitator e-mails questions to them on a particular subject. At periodic intervals, the facilitator produces a summary of views and sends it to all the participants. It is similar to an online focus group in that the participants are unable to see each other therefore no visual signals can be communicated, although anonymity can be assured.

Methodology is a description of the way in which the data is collected for part or all of a research project.

Metric Data is data that can be analysed statistically, such as that from an interval or ratio scale.

Mini Group Discussion is a focus group with fewer participants (usually 4-6) than the normal 8-12.

Mode is a measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring value in a set of values.

Moderator is someone who leads (but does not influence the outcome of) group discussions and/or in-depth interviews.

Monadic Evaluation (Single Product Test) is a study or part of a study in which the respondents evaluate only one stimulus on its own merits and there is no comparison with other stimuli. The stimulus can be a product, a concept or an advertisement etc.

Monitor is a quality control measure that may involve observing, auditing and checking the interviewing to ensure that the required procedures are followed and to give feedback and instruction to the interviewers.

Monitoring is one means of validating or giving assurance that. data is collected from qualified respondents who are interviewed under prescribed conditions. Monitoring can be done in person for face-to-face interviews or by phone for telephone interviews.

Mortality Error occurs in experiments when changes in the dependent variable are caused by experimental units no longer being part of the experiment.

Motivational Research is qualitative research that examines the relationship between the “personality” of the consumer and the “personality” of the product. It can involve research techniques that have been borrowed from the psychological analysis. It is used to uncover conscious and/or subconscious attitudes that participants either may be unaware of and/or they would not normally reveal when questioned directly.

Moving Average is the mean of a series of measurements that have been taken over a period of time. Moving averages can be used to eliminate a seasonal bias in some data.

MRA is the Marketing Research Association (based in the US) and it is a professional society for those who are involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research. Its mission is to promote excellence in marketing and opinion research by providing members with a variety of opportunities for advancing and expanding their marketing research and related business skills and to act as an industry advocate with appropriate government entities, other associations and the public.

MRS is the Market Research Society (based in the UK) and it is a professional society for those who are involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research.

Multi-collinearity is a state of high intercorrelations among independent variables.

Multi-dimensional Scaling is a perceptual mapping technique that represents perceptions and preferences of respondents as a spatial map. The axes of each map are the underlying dimensions that respondents use to form their preferences and perceptions.

Multi-item Scale is a measurement scale that gathers opinions about an object on a number of dimensions and the data can be collated to produce a combined rating. The dimensions used can come from secondary sources and/or qualitative research. The intended use of the resulting data will also determine which dimensions are included in the scale.

Multi-Stage Sample is a sample that is selected in stages, where the sampling units at each stage are sub-samples from the previous stage.

Multiple Answers are when more than one answer is acceptable for the same question.

Multiple Choice Questions are those that ask respondents to select one or more alternatives from a set.

Multiple Cross-sectional Design is a type of research design where two or more samples are drawn from a population of interest, each sample being only drawn once.

Multiple Regression Analysis is a technique for developing mathematical relationships between two or more independent variables and an interval-scaled dependent variable.

Multiple Response Question is one where respondents can provide more than one answer, eg by checking more than one item on a list.

Multiple Time Series Design is a type of quasi-experimental design where a series of periodic measurements is taken from two groups of test units (an experimental group and a control). The experimental group is exposed to a treatment and then another series of periodic measurements is taken from both groups.

Multi-variate Techniques are forms of statistical analysis that are used where there are two or more dependent variables to be analysed simultaneously.

Mutually Exclusive Categories are mutually exclusive when objects can be placed into one category and no other.

Mystery Shopping is a type of observation study where someone is sent into a business location to act in the role of a customer to evaluate the performance of a business or an employee.

Nominal Scale: Type of measurement scale where possible responses are categories and there is no order or structure (ex: religious preference, race, sex).

Omnibus Panel: (or piggyback) respondents are measured repeatedly over time but on variables that change from measurement to measurement.

Predictor Variables: A variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable.

Primary Research: Data originated by the researcher specifically to address the research problem. The collection of data that does not already exist; it is collected for the first time either as a adhoc/custom research or as a panel or syndicated study.

Privacy Policy: A legal document published by organizations that shares how they keep information private, how the information is shared, and why it is collected.

Psychographics: The study and classification of people based on their individual psychological characteristics (attitudes, interests, opinions, lifestyle, etc.), as opposed to demographic information.

Qualitative Research: Research that uses exploratory techniques to obtain words and descriptions as data, as opposed to numerical data.

Quantitative Research: Research that uses numbers for data to analyze results.

Research Design: How the information is to be gathered for research, including the instruments to be used and how the information will be analyzed.

Sampling Error: The difference in the results from a sample from what the results would be if the entire population was surveyed.

Secondary Research: Data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand

SWOT Analysis: Evaluating your company’s internal strengths and weaknesses and the external opportunities and threats.

Syndicated Research: Research performed by a research company that makes the results available for sale.

Systematic: carried out according to a fixed plan (methodical).